Five styles from three continents: two from West Africa, one from southern Spain, and two from East Asian pop.
| Style | Where and when | Tempo | Core instruments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Afrobeat | Nigeria, late 1960s | Not stated in our sources | Horns and saxophones, bass, guitar, drums, keyboards, Hammond organ, percussion, chanted vocals |
| Highlife | Coastal Gold Coast (Ghana), from the 19th century | Not stated in our sources | Horns and guitars leading, Western instruments over African rhythm |
| Flamenco | Andalusia, Spain, late 18th century | Depends on the palo: alegrías 120–170 BPM; bulerías fast | Voice, guitar, handclaps, footwork, castanets, cajón |
| City pop | Japan, mid-1970s, peaking in the 1980s | Not stated in our sources | Band, synthesizers such as the Yamaha CS-80 and Casio CZ-101, TR-808 |
| K-pop | South Korea, 1990s | Mostly fast-paced, built for dancing | Synthesized pop, hip-hop, R&B and electronic production, voice |
Afrobeat
Afrobeat, also called Afrofunk, is a West African style that joins Yoruba and Ghanaian music, highlife among it, with American funk, jazz and soul. It focuses on chanted vocals, complex interlocking rhythms and percussion. Fela Kuti developed it in Nigeria in the late 1960s with the drummer Tony Allen. (It is not the same as afrobeats, the later pop umbrella.)
Defining records. Fela Kuti and Africa 70's "Zombie" (1977), a massive success whose attack on the Nigerian military led to a raid on his Kalakuta Republic commune by 1,000 soldiers. Roy Ayers' "Africa: Centre of the World" (1981) came from his collaboration with afrobeat musicians.
Production notes. Fela's band was unusual in carrying two baritone saxophones where most groups used one. Big bands, long instrumental solos and complex, jazzy rhythms are its marks.
Highlife
Highlife is a Ghanaian style that began in the coastal cities in the 19th century, when Ghana was the British colony of the Gold Coast. It keeps the melodic and rhythmic structures of traditional African music but is usually played on Western instruments, and it spread through West Africa; in Nigeria, Igbo highlife became the country's most popular music in the 1960s.
Defining records. Jacob Sam, also known as Kwame Asare, is credited with the first highlife recording. E. T. Mensah, "the King of Highlife", led the Tempos, who toured West Africa and Britain; his "Ghana Freedom" is tied to Ghana's independence.
Production notes. Jazzy horns and guitars lead the band, and the guitar uses the two-finger plucking style typical of African music. Some highlife guitar parts are modelled on the Afro-Cuban guajeo.
Flamenco
Flamenco grew from the folk music of southern Spain within the gitano culture of Andalusia, and took shape in the late 18th century. It is regarded as a complex musical system: song, guitar, dance, rhythm cycles called compás, modal and tonal harmony, guitar interludes called falsetas, handclaps, footwork and improvised ornament. Its styles, the palos, number more than 50.
Defining records. Julián Arcas' rondeña was the first composition recorded for solo guitar that is considered flamenco. Paco de Lucía's "Entre dos aguas", from the album "Fuente y caudal", is his best-known piece; with the Guitar Trio he made "Friday Night in San Francisco" (1981), which sold over a million copies. Camarón de la Isla's "Soy Gitano" (1989) was recorded with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and Tomatito.
Production notes. The guitarist's introduction sets the key, the compás and the tempo for the singer. Tempo depends on the palo: alegrías usually run at 120 to 170 BPM, and bulerías is fast, on a 12-beat cycle. "Entre dos aguas" is a rumba with bongos and electric bass, proof that flamenco takes other instruments well.
City pop
City pop is a loosely defined Japanese pop style that emerged in the mid-1970s and peaked in the 1980s, drawing on American soft rock of the era. Writers trace it to Haruomi Hosono and Tatsuro Yamashita, or to the band Happy End.
Defining records. Mariya Takeuchi's "Plastic Love" (1984), which millions abroad have since found through YouTube; Tomoko Soryo's "City Lights by the Moonlight" (1977), marketed as "city pops".
Production notes. City pop is tied to the technology of its boom: the Walkman, car cassette decks and FM stereo, and instruments such as the Yamaha CS-80 and Casio CZ-101 synthesizers and the Roland TR-808. A clean, polished band sound for the car and the headphones.
K-pop
K-pop, short for Korean popular music, emerged in the 1990s as a youth culture, with Korean musicians drawing on Western dance music, hip-hop, R&B and rock. Today it mostly means teen idol acts, girl groups and boy bands, with as much weight on visuals and performance as on sound.
Defining records. Seo Taiji and Boys, who debuted on 11 April 1992 with "I Know", modernised Korean pop by bringing in rap and American hip-hop. Psy's "Gangnam Style" (2012) carried the Korean Wave around the world.
Production notes. Songs mix pop, rock, hip-hop, R&B and electronic music, often in one track; most are fast with a strong rhythm, because the choreography is written to the tempo.
Sources
Every date, name, tempo and origin on this page comes from these pages, read on 2026-10-24.